Infant affect response in the face-to-face still face among Chinese- and European American mother-infant dyads.

Early face-to-face interactions with caregivers allow infants to learn how to express and exchange emotions with others. Within the field, however, the research regarding infant regulatory processes across cultures remains limited. The Double Face-to-Face Still Face (FFSF) paradigm provided an opportunity to examine infant affect in dyadic interactions with European American (EA, n = 54) and Chinese American (CA, n = 48) infants and caregivers. Consistent with our hypothesis that CA infants are less reactive than EA infants, CA infants in our study showed less negative and more neutral affect compared to EA infants. We also examined the number of infants who were unable to complete the full FFSF paradigm due to high levels of distress (e.g., 30-sec of sustained hard cries). Compared to EA infants, more CA infants were unable to complete the paradigm due to negative affect (e.g., sustained cries). Analyses showed an association between mothers' negative affect from the start of the paradigm with infant incompletion of the paradigm. These findings point to cultural differences in infant affect within the FFSF. As well, researchers should consider the characteristics of infants who do not complete the FFSF paradigm as they can provide meaningful data in understanding infant affect and regulation. Taken together, our findings suggest that the Double FFSF paradigm provides a reasonable threshold for distinguishing infants on their ability to regulate during a repeated social stressor.

Effect of Maternal Distress on Perceptions of Infant Behavior May Differ in Chinese-American and European-American Mothers and Infants.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined the associations between maternal distress (symptoms of depression and anxiety) and observer and maternal ratings of infant temperament in Chinese-American (CA) and European-American (EA) 4-month-old infants (N = 114 dyads). METHODS: Maternal distress was obtained through self-reported symptoms of depression and anxiety. Mothers reported infant temperament (distress at limitations, soothability, and fear) through the short form of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised. To obtain observer-rated infant reactivity, infants were administered a battery of visual and auditory stimuli in the laboratory, in which infant behaviors (fret/cry, limb activity, and arching of the back) were coded. RESULTS: Maternal distress accounted more for the maternal perception of her infant among EA mothers than among CA mothers, but the relation was only observed for soothability. Higher maternal distress was associated with maternal report of lower soothability for EA mothers. Observer-rated infant reactivity, but not maternal distress, was positively associated with EA and CA maternal report of distress at limitations. Observer-rated infant negativity was associated with somewhat higher ratings of infant fear for EA mothers, although this association for EA mothers was not significantly different from CA mothers. CONCLUSIONS: Potential biases in maternal report of infant behavior due to effects from maternal distress may not be generalizable across cultures but may vary because of cultural norms for emotional experience and expectations for infant behavior. EA mothers' ratings of infant distress and soothability, but not fear, may be influenced by maternal distress.

Mother-infant interactions with firstborns and secondborns: A within-family study of European Americans.

Given the large numbers of families with more than one child, understanding similarities and differences in siblings' behaviors and in parents' interactions with their sibling infants is an important goal for advancing more representative developmental science. This study employed a within-family design to examine mean-level consistency and individual-order agreement in 5-month-old sibling behaviors and maternal parenting practices with their firstborns and secondborns (ns = 61 mothers and 122 infants). Each infant was seen independently with mother. Firstborn infants were more social with their mothers and engaged in more exploration with objects than secondborn infants; firstborn and secondborn infants' behaviors were correlated for smiling, distress communication, and efficiency of exploration. Mothers engaged in more physical encouragement, social exchange, didactic interaction, material provisioning, and language with their firstborns than with their secondborns. Notably, only maternal nurturing (e.g., feeding, holding) did not differ in mean level when mothers were with their two infants. However, mean differences in mothers' social exchange and material provisioning with their two children attenuated to nonsignificance when controlling for differences in siblings' behaviors. Individual-order agreement of mothers' behaviors with firstborn and secondborn infants (across an average of almost 3 years) was only moderate. These findings suggest that mother-firstborn interactions may differ from mother-secondborn interactions. Future research should move beyond studying mother-firstborn dyads to understand broader family and developmental processes.

Maternal childhood emotional abuse predicts Chinese infant behavior problems: Examining mediating and moderating processes.

The current study examined the mediating effect of maternal negative expressiveness as well as the moderating effects of infant inhibitory control (IC) in the association between maternal childhood emotional abuse (CEA) and infant behavior problems. Drawing from 207 families from mainland China, 2-wave data were reported in this study when the infants were 6 months (T1) and 14 (T2) months. Mothers (Mean age = 32.85 years, SD = 4.04) reported their CEA on the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire-Short Form (CTQ-SF) at T1, and their negative expressiveness on the Self-Expressiveness in the Family Questionnaire (SEFQ) at T2. The Infant-Toddler Social and Emotional Assessment (ITSEA) and a reverse categorization task were used to measure infant behavior problems and IC at T2, respectively. The results showed that T1 maternal CEA, rather than physical and sexual abuse, uniquely predicted T2 negative expressiveness. Maternal negative expressiveness significantly mediated the positive relations of maternal CEA and infant externalizing, internalizing and dysregulation problems. In addition, the moderated mediation model showed that the association between maternal negative expressiveness and infant dysregulation problems was moderated by infant IC. Specifically, the mediating pathway from maternal CEA to dysregulation problems through maternal negative expressiveness was significant, only for infants with poor IC. The results were robust even after controlling for family socio-economic status (SES), maternal childhood physical and sexual abuse. The importance of mediating and moderating processes in understanding the effect of maternal emotional abuse during childhood on infant behavior problems is discussed.

Japanese mothers' prebirth Adult Attachment Interview predicts their infants' response to the Strange Situation Procedure: The strange situation in Japan revisited three decades later.

The current study investigated the intergenerational transmission of attachment in Sapporo, Japan, using the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) and the Strange Situation Procedure (SSP). This is the first SSP study in Sapporo in three decades, after a study in the mid-1980s reported controversial results. The SSP distributions found in the current study, however, were similar to those reported in the earlier Sapporo study, including its controversial finding that ambivalent attachment was predominant in insecure infants. The current study used the AAI and the SSP to study the intergenerational transmission of attachment in Japan and found a strong categorical match consistent with those reported elsewhere in the world. A proportion of infants who were judged disorganized as the first report in this Japanese sample was also found to be similar to the reported global norm. Disorganized attachment in Japanese infants was strongly predicted by the mother's unresolved state of mind as was found across normative samples. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

The Interactive Origin and the Aesthetic Modelling of Image-Schemas and Primary Metaphors.

According to the theory of conceptual metaphor, image-schemas and primary metaphors are preconceptual structures configured in human cognition, based on sensory-motor environmental activity. Focusing on the way both non-conceptual structures are embedded in early social interaction, we provide empirical evidence for the interactive and intersubjective ontogenesis of image-schemas and primary metaphors. We present the results of a multimodal image-schematic microanalysis of three interactive infant-directed performances (the composition of movement, touch, speech, and vocalization that adults produce for-and-with the infants). The microanalyses show that adults aesthetically highlight the image-schematic structures embedded in the multimodal composition of the performance, and that primary metaphors are also lived as embedded in these inter-enactive experiences. The findings allow corroborating that the psychological domains of cognition and affection are not in rivalry or conflict but rather intertwined in meaningful experiences.

How do caregivers understand and respond to unsettled infant behaviour in Vietnam? A qualitative study.

BACKGROUND: Unsettled infant behaviours are a common source of concern for new parents and have been associated with perinatal common mental disorders amongst women in high-income settings. There is little evidence about how unsettled infant behaviours are understood and managed in low and lower-middle income countries. This study aimed to describe caregivers' understandings of, and responses to, unsettled infant behaviours in Vietnam and their family caregiving contexts. METHODS: Women who were mothers of infants aged 0-6 months were purposively recruited from two sites in Thua Thien Hue Province, Vietnam (one urban and one rural). An additional group of women who were grandmothers were recruited by snowball sampling. Data were collected in semi-structured interviews about demographic information, infant feeding practices, descriptions of infant crying episodes, beliefs about why infants cry, settling strategies, infant sleeping arrangements and sources of advice on infant care. Translated interview transcripts were analysed thematically. RESULTS: Twenty-four interviews were undertaken (21 with mothers and 3 with grandmothers). Five major themes emerged from the data after analysis: infant settling techniques, sources of information on unsettled infant behaviour, understandings of the causes of infant crying, the emotional responses of caregivers and the intergenerational household context. Infants were commonly cared for by people from multiple generations, particularly during the day. Infant settling was characterized by attending to infants immediately, breastfeeding and bed-sharing with parents during the night. Most mothers received advice on caregiving from family members. Infant crying was attributed to hunger and loneliness, as well as traditional beliefs that the infant was being upset by 'ghosts' or becoming 'hot'. Women described feeling anxious, frustrated and helpless in relation to unsettled behaviours amongst their infants. CONCLUSIONS: Educational interventions on interpreting infant cues, infant sleep requirements and bed sharing may be appropriate in Vietnam if multiple generations are included and traditional beliefs about infant crying are addressed.

Cultural diversification of communicative gestures through early childhood: A comparison of children in English-, German-, and Chinese- speaking families.

Previous literature has demonstrated cultural differences in young children's use of communicative gestures, but the results were mixed depending on which gestures were measured and what age of children were involved. This study included variety of different types of gestures and examined whether children's use of communicative gestures varies by their cultural backgrounds and ages. 714 parents of children (6-36 months old) from U.S.A. English-, German-, and Taiwan Chinese- speaking countries completed the questionnaire on their children's use of each gesture described in the survey. We used logistic regressions to examine the effect of children's culture and age, and the interaction effect (culture×age). Children were more likely to use all gestures except reaching, showing, and smacking lips for "yum, yum" as their age increases. In addition, there were gestures that showed significantly different probabilities across children's cultural backgrounds. A significant interaction effect was shown for five gestures: reaching, showing, pointing, arms up to be picked up, and "quiet" gesture. Results suggest that the influence of culture on young children's communication emerges from infancy.

Looking for cues - infant communication of hunger and satiation during milk feeding.

It is known that duration of breastfeeding and responsive feeding are associated with decreased risk of obesity. It is however, not clear whether breastfed infants signal more to mothers to facilitate responsive feeding, compared to formula fed, nor what communication cues are important during the feeding interaction. The present study aimed to explore feeding cues in milk-fed infants and to examine if such cues vary by mode of feeding. Twenty-seven mothers and infants were filmed while breastfeeding or formula feeding. Infants' age ranged from 3 to 22 weeks. Feeding cues were identified using a validated list of communication cues (NCAST). The frequency of each cue during the beginning, middle, and end of the meal was recorded. There were 22 feeding cues identified during the feeds, with significantly more frequent disengagement cues expressed than engagement cues. Significantly more frequent feeding cues were observed at the beginning than at the end of the meal showing that cue frequency changes with satiation. Breastfeeding infants exhibited more engagement and disengagement cues than formula fed infants. Supporting mothers to identify engagement and disengagement cues during a milk feed may promote more responsive feeding-strategies that can be acquired by mothers using different modes of feeding.

Adaptation of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised for use in Ethiopia: Expanding cross-cultural investigation of temperament development.

Cross-cultural differences in temperament were evaluated for Ethiopian (N=109) and U.S. (N=109) samples of infants. We anticipated that the Sidama version of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised (IBQ-R; Gartstein & Rothbart, 2003) developed for use in Ethiopia would demonstrate satisfactory psychometric properties, and hypothesized significant cross-cultural differences in levels of fine-grained temperament characteristics. Interactions between culture, infant age, and sex were also considered. Internal consistency was satisfactory for 13 of the 14 IBQ-R scales (with a somewhat low estimate observed for Duration of Orienting), and an examination of the structure indicated patterns similar to those observed in the US, and elsewhere. Differences between Ethiopia and the US were noted for Activity Level, Distress to Limitations, Fear, Smiling/Laughter, Falling Reactivity, Cuddliness/Affiliation, Sadness, Approach, and Vocal Reactivity. Parents of infants in the US reported higher levels of attributes associated with Surgency/Positive Affectivity (Activity, Smiling/Laughter, Approach Vocal Reactivity), whereas Ethiopian infants' scores were higher for Distress to Limitations and Fear, linked with the over-arching temperament factor of Negative Emotionality; however, US infants received higher ratings on Sadness, also associated with this factor. Higher Falling Reactivity, a regulation-related attribute, was reported for Ethiopian infants, with US babies receiving higher Cuddliness/Affiliation scores. Significant culture*age interactions were observed for Activity and Fear, along with a significant culture*age*sex interaction for Distress to Limitations.

Mothers' perinatal and infant mental health knowledge in a Johannesburg township setting.

OBJECTIVE: This paper examines maternal knowledge regarding perinatal and infant mental health amongst mothers in Alexandra township, Johannesburg. The applicability and utility of these Western-derived concepts in a low socio-economic South African setting is examined. METHOD: A concurrent mixed methods approach was used. Descriptive statistical analysis was conducted on the responses of 255 mothers on a structured questionnaire, designed to elicit levels of knowledge about the relational needs and awareness of infants and the psychosocial needs of mothers, to determine trends in mothers' knowledge. A thematic content analysis was also conducted on the responses to determine themes and understandings within the mothers' responses. RESULTS: Maternal knowledge in Alexandra regarding perinatal and infant mental health correlates with maternal education levels. Cultural, contextual and psychological factors appear to influence maternal understandings of infant sentience and maternal ambivalence. CONCLUSIONS: Further research is required to determine possible contributions of the denial of negative maternal affect post-birth to elevated levels of post-natal depression found amongst South African mothers parenting in adverse circumstances. There is a need for education regarding key messages from the neuroscience of development, to give these parents opportunities to raise their children in a way that supports healthy cognitive and emotional development.

Reactions to Receiving a Gift-Maternal Scaffolding and Cultural Learning in Berlin and Delhi.

This study shows how Berlin (n = 35) and Delhi (n = 28) mothers scaffold a common and highly scripted social situation, namely gift giving, and enable cultural learning in 19-month-olds. Using modeling and prompting to encourage appropriate responses, mothers took culture-specific directions during scaffolding that were in line with the broader cultural model as assessed by maternal socialization goals (SGs). Whereas Berlin mothers prioritized autonomous SGs, Delhi mothers emphasized autonomous and relational SGs to similar degrees. During scaffolding, Berlin mothers focused on maximizing positive affect and acknowledging the gift, whereas Delhi mothers prompted toddlers to acknowledge the giver more often. Furthermore, there were differences in toddlers' behavior in line with these culture-specific scripts guiding gift giving.

Culture Influences Action Understanding in Infancy: Prediction of Actions Performed With Chopsticks and Spoons in Chinese and Swedish Infants.

The cultural specificity of action prediction was assessed in 8-month-old Chinese and Swedish infants. Infants were presented with an actor eating with a spoon or chopsticks. Predictive goal-directed gaze shifts were examined using eye tracking. The results demonstrate that Chinese infants only predict the goal of eating actions performed with chopsticks, whereas Swedish infants exclusively predict the goal of eating actions performed with a spoon. Infants in neither culture predicted the goal of object manipulation actions (e.g., picking up food) performed with a spoon or chopsticks. The results support the view that multiple processes (both visual/cultural learning and motor-based direct matching processes) facilitate goal prediction during observation of other peoples' actions early in infancy.

Similarities and Differences in Maternal Responsiveness in Three Societies: Evidence From Fiji, Kenya, and the United States.

The first relationship between an infant and her caregiver, typically the mother, lays the foundation for cognitive, social, and emotional development. Maternal responsiveness and affect mirroring have been studied extensively in Western societies yet very few studies have systematically examined these caregiving features in non-Western settings. Sixty-six mother-infant dyads (7 months, SD = 3.1) were observed in a small-scale, rural island society in Fiji, a village in Kenya, and an urban center in the United States. Mothers responded similarly to infant bids overall, but differences were found across societies in the ways mothers selectively respond to affective displays. This has implications for understanding early emotion socialization as well as understanding variation in infant social ecologies across the globe.

The relationship between maternal feeding beliefs and practices and perceptions of infant eating behaviours at 4 months.

Parental feeding practices and children's eating behaviours are inter-related and both have been implicated in the development of childhood obesity. However, research on the parent-child feeding relationship during the first few months of life is limited. The aim of this study was to examine the cross-sectional relationship between maternal feeding beliefs and practices and infant eating behaviours in a community sample. Mothers (N = 413) of 4 month old infants recruited during pregnancy for the New Beginnings: Healthy Mothers and Babies study self-reported feeding beliefs/practices and eating behaviours of their infants on established tools. Data on a comprehensive range of maternal and infant characteristics were also collected. Multivariable regression models were used to assess the associations between five feeding beliefs and practices and four eating behaviours, adjusting for key maternal and infant covariates. Mothers concerned about their infant becoming underweight rated the infant higher on satiety responsiveness and lower on enjoyment of food. Higher awareness of infant feeding cues was associated with higher infant enjoyment of food. Mothers concerned about their infant becoming overweight and those who used food to calm their baby rated the infant as higher on food responsiveness. Feeding to a schedule (vs on demand) was not associated with any of the infant eating behaviours. A relationship between maternal feeding beliefs and practices and infant eating behaviours is apparent early in life, therefore longitudinal investigation to establish the directions of this relationship is warranted.

Cultural Variation in Triadic Infant-Caregiver Object Exploration.

Two studies examined the extent to which the type of triadic interaction pervasive in Western populations (i.e., shared visual attention and ostensive pedagogical cues) was representative of infant-caregiver object exploration in a non-Western indigenous community. Caregivers in the United States and Vanuatu interacted with infants and a novel object for 3 min. In Study 1 (N = 116, Mage  = 29.05), Ni-Van caregivers used more physical triadic engagement and U.S. caregivers used more visual triadic engagement. In Study 2 (N = 80, Mage  = 29.91), U.S. caregivers were more likely than Ni-Van caregivers to transmit an action and to use visual cues while interacting with their child. These studies demonstrate that the Western model of early social learning is not universal.

Received sensitivity: adapting Ainsworth's scale to capture sensitivity in a multiple-caregiver context.

A network of multiple caregivers contributing to the care of an infant is the norm in many non-Western cultural contexts. Current observational measures of caregiver sensitive responsiveness to infant signals focus on single caregivers, failing to capture the total experience of the infant when it comes to the sensitive responsiveness received from multiple sources. The current paper aims to introduce the construct of received sensitivity that captures the sensitivity that an infant experiences from multiple sources in cultural contexts where simultaneous multiple caregiving is common. The paper further presents an adaptation of Ainsworth's Sensitivity versus Insensitivity observation scale to allow for the assessment of sensitivity as received by the infant regardless of who is providing the sensitive responses to its signals. The potential usefulness of the Received Sensitivity scale is illustrated by two case studies of infants from an Agta forager community in the Philippines where infants are routinely taken care of by multiple caregivers. The case studies show that the infants' total experience of being responded to sensitively cannot be simply derived from the sum of individual caregiver sensitivity scores, demonstrating the potential added value of the new Received Sensitivity observation measure.

Associations between dietary intakes of first-time fathers and their 20-month-old children are moderated by fathers' BMI, education and age.

Children's learning about food is considerable during their formative years, with parental influence being pivotal. Research has focused predominantly on maternal influences, with little known about the relationships between fathers' and children's diets. Greater understanding of this relationship is necessary for the design of appropriate interventions. The aim of this study was to investigate the associations between the diets of fathers and their children and the moderating effects of fathers' BMI, education and age on these associations. The diets of fathers and their first-born children (n 317) in the Melbourne Infant Feeding Activity and Nutrition Trial (InFANT) Program were assessed using an FFQ and 3 × 24-h recalls, respectively. The InFANT Program is a cluster-randomised controlled trial in the setting of first-time parents groups in Victoria, Australia. Associations between father and child fruit, vegetable, non-core food and non-core drink intakes were assessed using linear regression. The extent to which these associations were mediated by maternal intake was tested. Moderation of associations by paternal BMI, education and age was assessed. Positive associations were found between fathers' and children's intake of fruit, sweet snacks and take-away foods. Paternal BMI, education and age moderated the relationships found for the intakes of fruit (BMI), vegetables (age), savoury snacks (BMI and education) and take-away foods (BMI and education). Our findings suggest that associations exist at a young age and are moderated by paternal BMI, education and age. This study highlights the importance of fathers in modelling healthy diets for their children.

Latino Parents' Beliefs about Television Viewing by Infants and Toddlers.

OBJECTIVE: To determine Latino parents' beliefs regarding the effects of television viewing on infants and toddlers. METHODS: We conducted interviews with 26 Latino parents of infants and toddlers. We evaluated parents' beliefs about the health effects of television viewing, sources of information on this topic and facilitators and barriers to following the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) screen-time guidelines. RESULTS: Parents believed that television viewing was educational for children but were concerned that watching television could worsen children's vision. Parents would be motivated to limit television viewing by children if it were recommended by a health care provider. Most parents were confident that they could limit their children's television viewing, although some perceived logistical challenges to following guidelines. CONCLUSIONS: Parents in our study had limited knowledge of the effects of television. Counseling on television by health care providers for Latino parents may decrease Latino infants and toddlers' television exposure.

Influences on adherence to diet and physical activity recommendations in women and children: insights from six European studies.

BACKGROUND: Across Europe, poor health behaviours are associated with increased risks of non-communicable diseases. There is particular concern about young women, children and families, not least as health behaviours operating before and during pregnancy and in early postnatal life may have profound long-term consequences for children's health. Using findings drawn from 7 European countries, we aimed to identify barriers to the implementation and uptake of dietary and physical activity recommendations, and to consider how best to achieve changes in mothers' behaviours and thereby improve the adoption of health recommendations. Six studies across the 7 countries were used for this narrative synthesis of findings. KEY MESSAGES: A woman's education has a strong influence on her own and her children's health behaviours. Women's diets vary across ethnic groups and according to number of children, but psychological factors, such as self-efficacy and sense of control, which may be amenable to modification, are powerful, too, particularly in women with lower educational attainment. Maternal influences on children's behaviours are strong. Differences exist in infant feeding across countries, and there are apparent urban/rural differences in children's diets and physical activity. CONCLUSIONS: Interventions are needed before, as well as during, pregnancy to improve the diets of families with young children. Interventions to address psychological barriers to eating well and being more active are indicated.